Here we present four main feminist approaches. Although these approaches differ, they are not mutually exclusive or replace each other. These approaches represent fundamental strategies that guide research, legislation and policy. 2. Difference Feminism represents a wide range of feminisms that emphasize the differences between women and men. This approach emerged in the 1980s and 1990s with the aim of re-evaluating qualities traditionally devalued as “feminine” – such as subjectivity, care, feeling, or empathy. This approach identifies biases in science and technology by seeing what has been left out of a female perspective – sometimes expressed as “female knowledge types”. Feminisms of difference have been criticized as essentialist. Difference feminism tends to romanticize traditional femininity and masculinity and reinforce conventional stereotypes. This approach ignores the fact that women and men represent many different perspectives and values across classes and cultures. This was parallelized in the 1970s by French feminists who developed the concept of female writing (which translates to “feminine or feminine writing”).
[100] Hélène Cixous argues that writing and philosophy are phallocentric and, along with other French feminists such as Luce Irigaray, emphasizes “writing from the body” as a subversive exercise. [100] The work of Julia Kristeva, a feminist psychoanalyst and philosopher, and Bracha Ettinger,[112] an artist and psychoanalyst, has influenced feminist theory in general and feminist literary criticism in particular. However, researcher Elizabeth Wright points out that “none of these French feminists join the feminist movement as it emerged in the English-speaking world.” [100] [113] Recent feminist theories, such as those of Lisa Lucile Owens,[114] have focused on characterizing feminism as a universal emancipatory movement. In France, women`s right to vote was granted to women only by the Provisional Government of the French Republic on 21 April 1944. The 1944 Consultative Assembly of Algiers proposed on March 24, 1944 to grant women the right to vote, but after an amendment by Fernard Grenier, they were granted full citizenship, including the right to vote. Grenier`s proposal was approved by 51 votes to 16. In May 1947, after the November 1946 elections, sociologist Robert Verdier downplayed the “gender gap” and noted in Le Populaire that women had not voted consistently, dividing into men according to social class. During the baby boom period, feminism lost its importance.
The wars (World War I and World War II) had seen the temporary emancipation of some women, but the post-war period marked a return to conservative roles. [61] Islamic feminists defend women`s rights, gender equality, and social justice on the basis of an Islamic framework. Proponents seek to highlight the deeply rooted teachings of equality in the Qur`an and promote a challenge to the patriarchal interpretation of Islamic doctrine through the Quran, hadiths (sayings of Muhammad) and Sharia (law) to create a more egalitarian and just society. [283] Although rooted in Islam, the movement`s pioneers also used secular and Western feminist discourses and recognize the role of Islamic feminism as part of an integrated global feminist movement. [284] The widespread interest in women`s writing is linked to a general re-evaluation and expansion of the literary canon. Interest in postcolonial literature, gay and lesbian literature, writing by people of color, workforce writing, and cultural productions of other historically marginalized groups has led to a complete expansion of what is considered “literature” and genres that were not previously considered “literary,” such as children`s writing. diaries, letters, travelogues and many others. are now the subject of scientific interest. [212] [214] [215] Most genres and subgenres have been similarly analyzed, so literary studies have entered new territories such as “female Gothic”[216] or women`s science fiction. The term postfeminism is used to describe a set of viewpoints that have responded to feminism since the 1980s. Although not “anti-feminist,” postfeminists believe that women have achieved the goals of the second wave, while criticizing the feminist goals of the third and fourth waves.
The term was first used to describe a backlash against second-wave feminism, but it is now a label for a wide range of theories that critically address previous feminist discourses and challenge second-wave ideas. [100] Other post-feminists say that feminism is no longer relevant to today`s society. [101] [102] Amelia Jones wrote that the post-feminist texts that emerged in the 1980s and 1990s portrayed second-wave feminism as a monolithic entity. [103] Dorothy Chunn describes a “blame narrative” under the post-feminist moniker that undermines feminists for continuing to make demands for gender equality in a “post-feminist” society where “gender equality has (already) been achieved.” According to Chunn, “many feminists have expressed concern about how legal and equality discourses are now being used against them.” [104] Merriam-Webster chose “feminism” as the word of the year 2017, noting that “word of the year is a quantitative measure of interest in a particular word.” [279] Feminism means very different things to different people. The many variants of feminism are associated with a variety of philosophical and political viewpoints. Sue V. Rosser has distinguished at least ten different feminist approaches to science and technology (Rosser, 2008). Buddhist feminism is a movement that seeks to improve the religious, legal and social status of women within Buddhism. It is an aspect of feminist theology that seeks to promote and understand equality between men and women morally, socially, spiritually and in leadership from a Buddhist perspective. Buddhist feminist Rita Gross describes Buddhist feminism as “the radical practice of the humanity of women and men.” [285] Susan Wendell argues that “liberal feminism is a historical tradition derived from liberalism, as can be seen very clearly in the work of feminists such as Mary Wollstonecraft and John Stuart Mill, but feminists who have adopted the principles of this tradition have developed analyses and goals that go far beyond the liberal feminists of the 18th and 19th centuries. and many feminists whose goals and strategies have been identified as liberal feminists. reject the essential elements of liberalism” in the modern or partisan sense of the term; She emphasizes “equality of opportunity” as a defining feature of liberal feminism.
[120] The feminist movement produced feminist fiction, feminist non-fiction, and feminist poetry that sparked a new interest in women`s writing. It has also led to a general reassessment of women`s historical and academic contributions in response to the belief that women`s lives and contributions are underrepresented as areas of scientific interest. [212] There was also a strong link between feminist literature and activism, with feminist writings generally expressing key concerns or ideas about feminism at a particular time. Modern feminism challenges the essentialist view of gender as biologically intrinsic. [197] [198] For example, Anne Fausto-Sterling`s book Myths of Gender examines the hypotheses embodied in scientific research that support a biologically essentialist view of gender. [199] In Delusions of Gender, Cordelia Fine denies scientific evidence suggesting that there is an innate biological difference between the minds of men and women, instead asserting that cultural and societal beliefs are the reason for differences between individuals, generally perceived as differences between the sexes. [200] Charlotte Perkins Gilman wrote about feminism for the Atlanta Constitution, December 10, 1916. This TEDx talk sparked a global discussion about feminism. In 2012, author Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie explained to TEDxEuston why everyone – men and women – should be a feminist.
She talks about how men and women go through life with different experiences that are gendered – and that`s why they often struggle to understand how the other can`t see what seems so obvious. This is a point that is even more relevant in the wake of this year`s #MeToo movement. “The fact that many men don`t actively think about gender or don`t notice gender is part of the gender problem,” says Adichie. “Gender is important. Men and women experience the world differently. Gender colors the way we experience the world. But we can change that. The first wave of feminism took place in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The feminists of the first wave were known as suffragettes, they campaigned for women`s suffrage. Imagine living in a democracy where only half the population could vote! Unfortunately, this is still the case in some countries, but we are fortunate in Australia that women have the same democratic rights as men.
Liberal feminism is a very broad term that encompasses many modern, often divergent branches and a variety of general feminist and political perspectives; Some historically liberal branches are equality feminism, social feminism, equality feminism, difference feminism, individualist/libertarian feminism, and some forms of state feminism, especially Nordic state feminism. [121] The broad field of liberal feminism is sometimes confused with the newer and smaller branch of libertarian feminism, which tends to be markedly different from traditional liberal feminism.